Self-assessment
Part 3 of a series on different forms of assessment
Professor Don McAlpine NZAGC patron
Reprinted with permission from McAlpine, D. (2000) Assessment and the Gifted.
Tall Poppies, 25 (1).
This is the third in a series of three articles about forms of assessment that are relevant to students with special abilities. The three forms of assessment – portfolio, authentic, and self-assessment – all emphasise high levels of thinking, metacognitive thinking, self-reflective thinking, goal directed learning, and preferred learning styles. Self-assessment, which is the focus of this article, is inherent in both portfolio and authentic assessment. It is therefore appropriate to focus more careful attention on this form of assessment in the final discussion.
What is meant by self-assessment?
Self-assessment involves reflecting on past achievements, critically evaluating present performance and planning future goals. It thus involves past, present, and future perspectives. Underscoring the perspectives is the importance of personal goal setting and standards.
Sekula, Buttery and Guyton (1996) point out that self-assessment is premised on realistic knowledge about the self in relation to educational goals. It asks "How am I doing?" "How can I do better?" Boyd (1986) stresses that "the defining characteristic of self-assessment is the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work, and making judgments about the extent to which these have met these criteria and standards" (pg 5). Bourke and Poskitt (1997) further point out that students learn to compare and contrast their work with models and against a set of criteria. "It is important" they say "for all students to know what they are attempting before they set about the task" (pg 30). They also emphasise that "the student needs to know the standards of performance, know what she or he is trying to achieve, and be able to compare his or her own performance to that standard ... This means that students need to have an understanding of competence that can be applied to themselves" (pg 3).
Links between self-assessment and portfolio and authentic assessment
Self-assessment is in fact an important component of both portfolio and authentic assessment, which have already been discussed in the previous two articles. In an illuminative study by van Krayenoord and Paris (1997), students' self-appraisals were studied through worksample interviews based on both portfolio and authentic assessments. They observed that activities related to portfolio assessment required students to take initiative for assessing their own work. This could be achieved independently but more often in association with peers and teachers.
Hill (1995) also alluded to the link between portfolios and self-assessment when she reported that "Using portfolios engages learners in self-assessment as they reflect on how well they have achieved the standards and criteria they set out for themselves, and gather samples and artefacts with their teachers, peers, parents or other interested people" (pg 66).
Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) further emphasise the central role of self-assessment in authentic assessment. "One of the main purposes of authentic assessment" they continue, "is to encourage students to become involved more actively in monitoring and reviewing their own performance. This includes self-assessment of the products as well as the process of daily learning so that students learn to reflect on their work and evaluate their effort, feelings and accomplishments, not just their past grades" (pg 524). They go on to stress that such assessment develops feelings of ownership and responsibility for learning, and assists them become independent learners who develop control over their own learning. While these characteristics of self-assessment are important for all learners they have particular significance for students with special abilities.
What are some of the developmental and cognitive aspects of self-assessment that have relevance for such learners?
Developmental and cognitive aspects of self-assessment
The effectiveness of self-assessment and self-management of learning has been shown to improve with age, experience, intelligence, academic achievement and the quality of instruction (Paris & Cunningham, 1996; Swanson, 1990; van Krayenoord & Paris, 1997). It has been claimed (Garner, 1987) that from an information-processing perspective, self-assessment is a component of metacognition that is applied more spontaneously, more deeply, and more automatically as students move through primary school. In this respect van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) comment that "Developmental improvements in self-assessment allow students to rely less on the authority of grades and adults' evaluations as the sole source of feedback about their performance' (pg 525). They conclude that student self-assessment is fundamental to the development of intrinsic motivation and autonomous learning. It assists students to "learn how to learn".
Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) reported some interesting developmental trends in self-assessment as a result of their study. While they acknowledged that children can start to use self-assessment to evaluate their achievements when quite young, older students are, however, more effective at the process. Differences nevertheless occur within older students according to levels of ability and the "quality of teaching practices in particular classrooms"(pg 533). The quality of self-assessments were also particularly correlated with metacognitive abilities associated with reading. As students' metacognitive abilities develop so does their ability for self-reflection and self-regulation of learning.
Self-assessment was also correlated with gender differences, girls providing more sophisticated and elaborate responses than boys.
Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) also confirmed other research (Blumenfeld, Pintrich, Meece and Wessels, 1982; Stipek and MacIver, 1989) that, in judging their own achievements, children as they grow up, gradually change from equating achievement with 'effort' and see it related more to 'ability'.
Students with different ability levels and self assessment
Issues related to different ability levels of students and self-assessment alluded to by van Krayenoord and Paris have been investigated more specifically by other researchers. There is a fairly consistent picture from research on self-assessment that students of high ability tend to underestimate their own performances (by comparison with others), while students of lesser ability tend to overestimate their performances. There are exceptions to these findings, particularly when students focus their self-assessments on clear criteria and standards.
In reviewing self-assessments of "good" and "poor" students studying biology at the undergraduate level Orsmond, Merry and Reiling (1997) reported that "good" students tended to underestimate their performance while "poor" students tended to overestimate it. They also reported that students producing good work were more self-critical than they were judgmental, whereas students producing poor work were less critical but more judgmental. A similar finding was reported by Adams and King (1995) who observed that students handing in good assignments addressed both strengths and weaknesses of their work while others seemed to focus only on the strengths. Sullivan and Hall (1997) also examined students who overestimated their grades through self-assessment and reported that in some cases there seemed to be a confusion between "effort" and "quality" in their self-evaluations.
So far the discussion has examined some of the links between self-assessment and portfolio and authentic assessment as well as some of the cognitive and metacognitive characteristics associated with self-assessment, and self-assessment as it relates to students with different ability levels. The next section addresses the following questions:
- What are some of the benefits of self-assessment for learning and teaching?
- How far is self-assessment in fact a social activity?
- What is the role of the teacher in self-assessment? and
- What are some of the problems or drawbacks of self-assessment?
What are some of the benefits of self-assessment for learning and teaching?
In outlining some of the following benefits it is interesting to note their relevance for students with special abilities.
Self-assessment:
- encourages metacognitive abilities and critical evaluation of the learner's educational goals
- promotes student autonomy and decision making.
- acknowledges choices and preferences in student learning style
- is particularly relevant for open-ended learning activities
- encourages intrinsic motivation and self-sustained learning
- encourages success and life long learning
- develops the students' responsibility for their own, and
- encourages a collaborative student-teacher relationship in learning and assessment.
Self-assessment can also be used to determine existing competencies. It is a useful and individualised way of enabling students to establish if their prior learning is relevant for their next learning activity. This can help students avoid wasting time studying material they have already covered. This is particularly relevant for students with special abilities.
Self-assessment is also relevant as a means of evaluating whether major learning goals have been met in learning contracts which are often used in the education of students with special abilities.
How far is self-assessment a social activity?
It should be noted that self-assessment does not occur in isolation. It is a social activity. The self has very little meaning unless it relates to others; in terms of self-assessment this usually means in relation to peers and teachers. In many ways the reliability and validity of self-assessment is gradually built up not only in relation to criteria but also in relation to social interactions with assessments of peers and teachers. It is an interactive process involving the self and others in relation to criteria and standards.
As a result of these interactions there is an assumption of more increasingly realistic self-assessment. Van Krayenoord and Paris (1997) comment that self-assessment occurs in situations that are social and collaborative, and frequently with others who are more expert than themselves. It is interesting to consider how far such interactions would assist students with special abilities to develop more realistic self-appraisals of their performances.
What is the role of teachers in self-assessment?
As the result of self-assessment teachers and students become partners in the process of assessment and learning. Hence self-assessment is sometimes referred to as a collaborative form of assessment. "When self-assessment is being used as part of regular classroom practice", comment Bourke and Poskitt (1997), "teachers and students become more like partners in the learning process. Collaboration between teacher and student is the key to successful self-assessment techniques in the classroom" (pg 6). The questions that teachers ask a class can act as models for questions that learners ask themselves in self-assessment. Underpinning such questions are educational goals, and it is the aim of teachers to lead all children to a realisation of these goals, albeit at different levels.
How can teachers get started with self-assessment? A useful video (Bourke, Poskitt & McAlpine, 1997) illustrates some ideas for teachers which are further elaborated in an accompanying booklet (Bourke & Poskitt, 1997). First of all, begin early, for example, in the junior school. Towler and Broadfoot (1992) claim that five-year-olds are well able to review activities and communicate their opinions. Similarly, the Ministry of Education (Assessment: Policy to Practice, 1994) encourages teachers to introduce students to self-assessment at an early age.
Secondly, teach self-assessment techniques and encourage students to practise them under guidance. Thirdly, spend time conferencing with individual students. Linn and Gronlund (1995) emphasise that teacher conferencing in association with self-assessment has many benefits. They say "It should help the student (1) understand better the instructional objectives, (2) recognize the progress being made toward the objectives, (3) diagnose more effectively particular strengths and weaknesses, and (4) develop increased skill in self-assessment" (pg 260).
The results of self-assessment can be recorded qualitatively through descriptions for example, comments in portfolios, records and journals, or quantitatively through rating scales, inventories and questionnaires. Linn and Gronlund (1995) comment that students can work alongside teachers in designing such checklists and ultimately design their own. While these are useful points on recording self-assessments, it is necessary to be cautious that teacher-designed checklists which might form the basis of student self-assessment are not too prescriptive. Caution is also necessary to ensure that self-assessment doesn't become "self-marking". It is all too easy to hi-jack student autonomy and covertly impose an institutionalised assessment regime even on self-assessment.
What are some of the problems and drawbacks with self-assessment?
One of the problems related to self-assessment is the variability amongst students themselves, particularly in terms of personality traits associated with self-esteem and self-concept. Bourke and Poskitt (1997) further point out that "some children find it difficult to commend themselves, others find it hard to critically evaluate their performances" (pg 27).
Where self-assessment relies on qualitative responses the student's ability, or inability, with language may distort the intrinsic value of the assessment.
Another problem is: How truthful are self-reports? It is also difficult to get consistency with self-assessment. This means there are threats to the reliability of such assessments.
The amount of time required to implement and sustain self-assessment in the classroom is a major demand on teachers. Yet if it is to be done well students have to be trained to develop sound self-assessment skills, and teachers need to conference with students during the course of their learning.
Some teachers feel that their authority might be challenged if they allow student self-assessments to count in assessment and learning.
Since there is a degree of "disclosure" in some areas of self-assessment the procedure can be seen as a threat to privacy. There is also the danger of breech of confidentiality in sharing self-assessment with a wider audience albeit with the school environment. Sometimes there might even be uncertainty as to who the real audience might be.
Responses from student self-assessments should be taken seriously. 'It is important to avoid tokenism' claim Bourke and Poskitt (1997), "or to pretend to empower students through self-assessment but record one's own assessments"(pg 27).
While self-assessment may be taken seriously by younger children, there is some difficulty in getting older students to value its worth. Where school and national exams are seen to be the main measure of performance students are less likely to take self-assessments seriously.
Conclusion
Self-assessment represents a life long skill. It is clear that young children as early as five can be taught to improve their self-assessment skills, while students at the tertiary level can employ it usefully to assist their learning and achievement. Most adults use self-assessment either formally or informally every day of their lives where it can be the focus of both cognitive and affective activities.
Self-assessment is particularly appropriate for students with special abilities. With the development of metacognitive abilities students' abilities for self-reflection and self-regulation of learning are enhanced. Self-assessment promotes intrinsic motivation, and critical thinking, and assists in the development of independent learners. The relationship between intrinsic motivation in learning and self-assessment, however, may well be more complex. Rather than self-assessment promoting intrinsic motivation, it may indeed work in reverse, that is, students who are highly motivated to achieve may employ on-going self-assessment until their goals are reached.
When self-assessment is triangulated with peers, teachers, and experts in the field it assists students with special abilities develop more realistic self-appraisals.
Although self-assessment has a number of limitations, for example, the time necessary to train students in self-assessment, and teacher-time in conferencing with students, and the variability in student perceptions of their own performances, it has benefits in the development of life long skills to realistically assess one's own performance and plan future goals.
Finally, self-assessment plays a significant role in both portfolio and authentic assessment described in the two previous articles.
References
Adams, C. and King, K. (1995) Towards a framework for student self-assessment. Innovations in Education and Training International 32 (4) 336-343.
Blumenfeld, P.C., Pintrich, P., Meece, J. and Wessels, K. (1982) The formation and role of self perceptions of ability in elementary classrooms. Elementary School Journal 82, 401-420.
Boud, D. (1986) Implementing self-assessment. Paper presented at the Higher Education Research and Development of Australia Conference, Sydney.
Bourke, R. and Poskitt, J. (1997) Self-Assessment in the New Zealand Classroom (Booklet). Wellington: Ministry of Education.
Bourke, R., Poskitt, J. and McAlpine, D. (1997) Self-Assessment in the New Zealand Classroom (Video). Wellington: Ministry of Education.
Garner, R. (1987) Metacognition and reading comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Hill, M. (1995) Self-assessment in primary schools: A response to student teacher questions. Waikato Journal of Education (1), 61-70.
Linn, R.L. and Gronlund, N.E. (1995) Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. NJ: Merrill.
Ministry of Education (1994) Assessment: Policy to practice. Wellington: Learning Media.
Orsmond, P., Merry, S. and Reiling, K. (1997) A study in self-assessment: Tutor and students' perceptions of performance criteria. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education (22) 4, 357-369.
Paris, S.G. and Cunningham, A. (1996) Children becoming students. In D. Berliner and R. Calfee (Eds.) Handbook of Educational Psychology (pg 17-147). New York: Macmillan.
Sekula, J., Buttery, T. and Guyton, E. (1996) Authentic assessment. In, Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. New York: Prentice Hall International.
Stipek, D.J. and MacIver, D. (1989) Developmental changes in children's assessment of intellectual competence. Child Development (60), 521-538.
Sullivan, K. and Hall, C. (1997) Introducing students to self-assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 22 (3), 289-303.
Towler, L. and Broadfoot, P. (1992) Self-assessment in the primary school. Educational Review 44 (2), 137-151.
Van Krayenoord, C.E. and Paris, S.G. (1997) Australian students' self-appraisal of their work samples and academic progress. Elementary School Journal 97 (5), 523-537.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to acknowledge some helpful comments from Roseanna Bourke in reading this script.